Instrumentation Documents - Loop Diagrams
Here
we see that the P&ID didn’t show us all the instruments in this
control “loop.” Not only do we have two transmitters, a controller, and a
valve; we also have two signal transducers. Transducer 42a modifies the
flow transmitter’s signal before it goes into the controller, and
transducer 42b converts the electronic 4 to 20 mA signal into a
pneumatic 3 to 15 PSI air pressure signal. Each instrument “bubble” in a
loop diagram represents an individual device, with its own terminals
for connecting wires.
Note
that dashed lines now represent individual copper wires instead of
whole cables. Terminal blocks where these wires connect to are
represented by squares with numbers in them. Cable numbers, wire colors,
junction block numbers, panel identification, and even grounding points
are all shown in loop diagrams. The only type of diagram at a lower
level of abstraction than a loop diagram would be an electronic
schematic diagram for an individual instrument, which of course would
only show details pertaining to that one instrument. Thus, the loop
diagram is the most detailed form of diagram for a control system as a
whole, and thus it must contain all details omitted by PFDs and
P&IDs alike.
To
the novice it may seem excessive to include such trivia as wire colors
in a loop diagram. To the experienced instrument technician who has had
to work on systems lacking such documented detail, this information is
highly valued. The more detail you put into a loop diagram, the easier
it makes the inevitable job of maintaining that system at some later
date. When a loop diagram shows you exactly what wire color to expect at
exactly what point in an instrumentation system, and exactly what
terminal that wire should connect to, it becomes much easier to proceed
with any troubleshooting, calibration, or upgrade task.
An
interesting detail seen on this loop diagram is an entry specifying
“input calibration” and “output calibration” for each and every
instrument in the system. This is actually a very important concept to
keep in mind when troubleshooting a complex instrumentation system:
every instrument has at least one input and at least one output, with
some sort of mathematical relationship between the two. Diagnosing where
a problem lies within a measurement or control system often reduces to
testing various instruments to see if their output responses
appropriately match their input conditions.
For
example, one way to test the flow transmitter in this system would be
to subject it to a number of different pressures within its range
(specified in the diagram as 0 to 100 inches of water column
differential) and seeing whether or not the current signal output by the
transmitter was consistently proportional to the applied pressure (e.g.
4 mA at 0 inches pressure, 20 mA at 100 inches pressure, 12 mA at 50
inches pressure, etc.).
Given
the fact that a calibration error or malfunction in any one of these
instruments can cause a problem for the control system as a whole, it is
nice to know there is a way to determine which instrument is to blame
and which instruments are not. This general principle holds true
regardless of the instrument’s type or technology. You can use the same
input-versus-output test procedure to verify the proper operation of a
pneumatic (3 to 15 PSI) level transmitter or an analog electronic (4 to
20 mA) flow transmitter or a digital (fieldbus) temperature transmitter
alike. Each and every instrument has an input and an output, and there
is always a predictable (and testable) correlation from one to the
other.
Another interesting detail seen on this loop diagram is the action of each instrument. You will notice a box and arrow (pointing either up or down) next to each instrument bubble. An “up” arrow (↑) represents a direct-acting instrument: one whose output signal increases as the input stimulus increases. A “down” arrow (↓) represents a reverse-acting instrument:
one whose output signal decreases as the input stimulus increases. All
the instruments in this loop are direct-acting with the exception of the
pressure differential transmitter PDT-42:
Here,
the “down” arrow tells us the transmitter will output a full-range
signal (20 mA) when it senses zero differential pressure, and a 0%
signal (4 mA) when sensing a full 200 PSI differential. While this
calibration may seem confusing and unwarranted, it serves a definite
purpose in this particular control system. Since the transmitter’s
current signal decreases as pressure increases, and the controller must
be correspondingly configured, a decreasing current signal will be
interpreted by the controller as a high differential pressure. If any
wire connection fails in the 4-20 mA current loop for that transmitter,
the resulting 0 mA signal will be naturally “seen” by the controller as a
pressure over-range condition. This is considered dangerous in a
compressor system because it predicts a condition of surge. Thus, the
controller will naturally take action to prevent surge by commanding the
anti-surge control valve to open, because it “thinks” the compressor is
about to surge. In other words, the transmitter is intentionally
calibrated to be reverse-acting such that any break in the signal wiring
will naturally bring the system to its safest condition.
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